1.1 CONCEPT OF ETHICS
In the tradition of philosophy the term "ethics" is commonly understood as a theory of science who discuss what is good and what is bad with respect to human behavior. In other words, ethics is a business with her mind to construct theories about the organization of a good life. Persolan morality ethics arises when a person or a society begin to be reviewed critically. Morality with respect to the behavior of concrete, while the work ethic in the level of theory. Ethical values are understood, believed, and tried to be realized in real life is sometimes called ethos.
As a branch of philosophical thought, ethics can be distinguished even become two: obyektivisme and subjectivism. The first holds that the goodness of an action is objective, lies in the substance of the act itself. This ideology gave birth to the so-called schools of rationalism in ethics. An action is called good, says this ideology, not because we are happy to do so, or because in line with the will of the people, but simply making the universal rationalism which urges us to do so. Supporters of the main character of this flow is Immanuel Kant, while in Islam to some extent is the flow Muitazilah.
The second stream is subyektifisme, argued that an action is called either when in line with the will or the consideration of particular subjects. Subjects here could have been a collective subyektifisme, namely the public, or could have been the subject of God. Subyektifisme schools of ethics is divided into several streams, since the ethics of Thomas Hobbes hedonismenya to tradisionalismenya Ash'arite ideology. According Ash'arite ideology, goodness of an action instead of the value lies in the objectivity of value, but in obedience to the will of God. Ash'arite view that the human family is like a 'child' who must always be guided by the revelation that without revelation human beings are not capable of understanding what is good and bad. (Abdullah)
Bertens (2000) describes the concept of ethics with several meanings, one of them and ordinary people use is a habit, custom or morals and character. Great philosopher Aristotle, says Bertens, has used the word in describing this ethic of moral philosophy, the science of what is commonly done, or the science of custom. Bertens also said that in the General Dictionary Indonesian, Purwadaminta essay, ethics is defined as the science of the principles of morals (morals), while in the Big Indonesian Dictionary (Department of Education and Culture, 1988), the term ethics is referred to as (1) knowledge about what is good and what's bad and about the rights and moral obligations, (2) a collection of principles or values relating to morality, and (3) the values of right and wrong are adhered to a group or society.
In observance of the above sources, Bertens concluded that there are three important sense of ethics, ie ethics (1) as moral values and moral norms that become a handbook for someone or a group in regulating behavior, or so-called "value system" , (2) as a set of moral principles or values that are often known as the "code of ethics", and (3) as the science of a good or bad, often called "moral philosophy". (Bertens)
Ethics associated with public services have evolved since the 1940's through the work of Leys (in Keban, 1994). Leys said that an administrator is considered ethical if it is tested and questioned the standards used in making decisions and does not base its decision solely on the habits and traditions that already exist.
At approximately the 1950's began to develop new thinking patterns through the work of Anderson (in Keban, 1994) to refine aspects of the standards used in making decisions. Anderson's work adds a new point, that the standards are used as the basis for the decision as far as possible reflect the basic values of the community being served.
Then in the 1960s re-emerged a new thinking in writing Golembiewski (in Keban, 1994) which adds a new element, namely ethical standards may be amended from time to time and therefore administrators should be able to understand the developments and act according to standards of behavior them.
Since the early 1970's there was some important figures that a very large influence on the conception of the ethics of public administrators, two of which as claimed by Keban (1994) is John Rohr and Terry L. Cooper. Rohr suggested that administrators can use the regime norms of values of justice, equality and freedom as the basis for decision making on various policy alternatives in the execution of his duties. In this way, public administrators can be more unethical (ethical being). Meanwhile, according to Cooper's very involving substantive ethical reasoning about obligations, consequences and the ultimate goal, and act ethically (doing ethics) is to involve the systematic thinking about the values inherent in the choices in decision making. Cooper thought that the ethical administrator is an administrator who is always tied to responsibility and the role of the organization, as well as willing to apply the proper standard of ethics in administrative decision-making.
Ethics In Islam's view
Islamic ethics has much anticipation ahead with two major cirri. First, the ethics of human nature are not opposed to Islam. Second, Islam is very rationalistic ethics. Just as a comparison would let me quote the opinion of Alex Inkeles of modern attitudes. After reviewing the various theories and definitions of modernization, Inkeles make a summary of modern attitudes sabagai following, namely: fondness accept new ideas and try new methods; willingness to make their opinions; sensitivity to time and more concerned with present time and the future rather than time in the distant past; taste better punctuality; greater concern for the plan of organization and efficiency; tendency to see the world as something that can be calculated; appreciate the power of science and technology, and confidence in the fairness of bias leveled. (Mudlor)
It was no longer need to be noted that what was raised Inkeles and claimed as a modern attitude was in line with the ethics of the Koran. In discussions about the relationship between ethics and morals, problems often arise is how to see the events that are of particular moral and ethical theory in the perspective of an individual who is rational and universal. Islam has a universal claim when internalized and realized tend to be particular and individual events. In short, moral action is a concrete action that is personal and subjective. Moral action is going to be complicated when the same subject time and conflict of values. For example, the value of solidarity sometimes clash with the values of justice and honesty. This is where lies the freedom, moral consciousness and rationality becomes very important. Namely, how to account for a subjective act within the framework of objective ethical values, ethical action within the framework of macro-micro, outward actions in reference to an inner attitude.
In the perspective of psychology, human beings consist of three essential elements namely, Id, Ego and Superego, whereas in the Islamic view of the three is often paired with anger nafs, nafs lawwamah, and nafs mutmaninah. All three are elements that exist in human life that akn grow along the journey and experiences of human life. So to keep all three runs fine, required education given to children of parents in the form of ethics charges that became the spearhead of the above three elements. Among pemberiaan ethics education to the child is directed to some of the things below:
1. Habituation to the good stuff with samples and parents' behavior and not much use in verbal language and look for the truth certainly depend on the historicity of a person in life and living.
2. When children are able to understand with a habit, it can be given further direction by explaining what and why and those relating to law of causality (causation) In adulthood, children are also removed begtu course, the role of parents as a reminder and a director should not break, without having any impression of an authoritarian, even taking him to a discussion of religious understanding.
3. In adulthood, children are also removed begtu course, the role of parents as a reminder and a director should not be broken, without any impression of an authoritarian, even taking him to a discussion about the understanding keberagamaan.Pembiasaan to things that are good with samples and parents' behavior and not much use of verbal language in delivering good and bad things, the benefits and mudharatnya, misguided and not. (Hidayat)
1.2 CONCEPT OF STATE ADMINISTRATION
In the Framework of Science Book Adminnistrasi, the administration is defined as the overall process of cooperation between two or more people based on a certain rationality pncapaian dlam order a pre-determined objectives by utilizing the facilities and infrastructure is efficient and effective manner. (Siagian)
Theory-explanative descriptions provide an explanation in the abstract reality of the state administration, either in the form of concepts, propositions, or the law. One example is the concept of formal organizational hierarchy. The concept was to explain common features of formal organizations, namely adalnya hierarchy in the organizational structure. The concept is as simple as this hierarchy can be developed into a hierarchy in the working mechanisms of public organizations, where a complete lack of public organization managers are described as people who beradda dipucuk hierarchy of an organization and work exclusively in the internal structure, as well as the organization he leads, he must also organizations or groups related to social / political others who also have their own hierarchy.
Normative theory aims to explain the situation to prospective future administration. Included in the normative theory is utopian, for example, just and prosperous society based on Pancasila, or small family a happy and prosperous. Normative theory can also be developed by formulating normative criteria more specific, such as efficiency, effectiveness, responsibility, accountability, economy, employee morale, decentralization, participation, innovation, democracy, and so on. Normative theory provides recommendations in which direction a reality needs to be developed or modified by offering certain normative criteria.
Location of issues in normative theory is that normative criteria are offered in the literature are not always mutually supportive, but in some ways contradictory. Too high an emphasis on efficiency can be sacrificed flattening. Too high an emphasis on efficiency can be sacrificed flattening. Similarly, centralization is necessary in order to maintain coordination, but the excessive centralization can sacrifice accountability and innovation.
Assuming the theory emphasizes the precondition or assumption of a social reality behind the theory or proposition which would be built.
The central question is answered in this type of theory is "how" and "when". Instrumental theory is a follow-up (then) of the proposition "if-due". For example if the system of administration takes place in so and so because of this and that, if decentralization can improve the effectiveness of the bureaucracy, if humans and their institutions are ready or be prepared to change the administrative system towards greater decentralization, the strategies, techniques, and what tools developed to support it?
1.3 CONCEPT OF ADMINISTRATIVE ETHICS
Nicholas Henry (1995) holds that there are three developments that are driving the development of the concept of ethics in science administration, namely (1) loss of political administration dichotomy, (2) appearance of theories of decision making in which issues of human behavior into a central theme in comparison with previous approaches such as rationality, efficiency, (3) development of pembaharuanm views, which he termed "Counterculture Critique", including a group called "New State Administration".
John A. Rohr showed clearly through the expression as follows: "Through administrative discretion, bureaucrats Participate in the governing process of our society; but to Govern in a democratic society without being Responsible to the electorates' Raises a serious ethical question for bureaucrats".
Hence also this discussion does not begin with the limits for a lot of literature dealing with ethics, morals, morality, so that knowledge of it here is considered "given". For the sake of discussion here followed trail Rohr, expert ethical issues in the bureaucracy, the use of ethics and morals in the sense that more or less the same, although for the sake of another discussion, for example, from the philosophical angle, there is a difference. Rohr stated: "For the most part, I shall use the words" ethics "and" Morals "interchangeably. Although there may be nuances and shades of meaning That differentiate these words, They are etymologically derived from Latin and Greek words with the same meaning. "We know from the literature that ethics comes from the Greek word ethos which means customs or character; and moral, of Latin word mos (or mores for the plural) which means also the habit or way of life. (Kartasasmita).
Ethics is his world philosophy, values, and morals. Administration is the world's decisions and actions. Are abstract and ethical issues relating to good and bad, while the administration is concrete and must realize what they want (get the job done). Discussion of ethics in the administration is how to link the two, how ideas such administrative order, efficiency, keman-faatan, productivity can explain ethics in practice, and how the basic ideas to realize that good ethics and avoid the bad that can explain the nature of administrative .
Especially since the decade of the 1970s, administrative ethics has become a rapidly growing field of study in science administration. This development is particularly encouraged, though not caused solely by the problems faced by the state administration in the United States because of scandals such as Watergate and Iran Contra.
Studies are still ongoing to this day, and still not crystallized. This reflects an attempt to establish the identity of administrative science, which as a discipline that is eclectic and closely related to the world of practice, can not help but continue to evolve with the times.
Based on this study ethics bureaucracy is defined as containing the system of moral principles or rules of conduct that control or influence the habits of civil servants in carrying out a hierarchical system of government and hierarchy. By adhering to the values (honesty, fairness, proper appointments, law-abiding, responsible, responsive, careful, and polite), then government officials can run the government and provide services to the community in line with expectations so that maintaining public confidence against them. (Kartasasmita).
In the tradition of philosophy the term "ethics" is commonly understood as a theory of science who discuss what is good and what is bad with respect to human behavior. In other words, ethics is a business with her mind to construct theories about the organization of a good life. Persolan morality ethics arises when a person or a society begin to be reviewed critically. Morality with respect to the behavior of concrete, while the work ethic in the level of theory. Ethical values are understood, believed, and tried to be realized in real life is sometimes called ethos.
As a branch of philosophical thought, ethics can be distinguished even become two: obyektivisme and subjectivism. The first holds that the goodness of an action is objective, lies in the substance of the act itself. This ideology gave birth to the so-called schools of rationalism in ethics. An action is called good, says this ideology, not because we are happy to do so, or because in line with the will of the people, but simply making the universal rationalism which urges us to do so. Supporters of the main character of this flow is Immanuel Kant, while in Islam to some extent is the flow Muitazilah.
The second stream is subyektifisme, argued that an action is called either when in line with the will or the consideration of particular subjects. Subjects here could have been a collective subyektifisme, namely the public, or could have been the subject of God. Subyektifisme schools of ethics is divided into several streams, since the ethics of Thomas Hobbes hedonismenya to tradisionalismenya Ash'arite ideology. According Ash'arite ideology, goodness of an action instead of the value lies in the objectivity of value, but in obedience to the will of God. Ash'arite view that the human family is like a 'child' who must always be guided by the revelation that without revelation human beings are not capable of understanding what is good and bad. (Abdullah)
Bertens (2000) describes the concept of ethics with several meanings, one of them and ordinary people use is a habit, custom or morals and character. Great philosopher Aristotle, says Bertens, has used the word in describing this ethic of moral philosophy, the science of what is commonly done, or the science of custom. Bertens also said that in the General Dictionary Indonesian, Purwadaminta essay, ethics is defined as the science of the principles of morals (morals), while in the Big Indonesian Dictionary (Department of Education and Culture, 1988), the term ethics is referred to as (1) knowledge about what is good and what's bad and about the rights and moral obligations, (2) a collection of principles or values relating to morality, and (3) the values of right and wrong are adhered to a group or society.
In observance of the above sources, Bertens concluded that there are three important sense of ethics, ie ethics (1) as moral values and moral norms that become a handbook for someone or a group in regulating behavior, or so-called "value system" , (2) as a set of moral principles or values that are often known as the "code of ethics", and (3) as the science of a good or bad, often called "moral philosophy". (Bertens)
Ethics associated with public services have evolved since the 1940's through the work of Leys (in Keban, 1994). Leys said that an administrator is considered ethical if it is tested and questioned the standards used in making decisions and does not base its decision solely on the habits and traditions that already exist.
At approximately the 1950's began to develop new thinking patterns through the work of Anderson (in Keban, 1994) to refine aspects of the standards used in making decisions. Anderson's work adds a new point, that the standards are used as the basis for the decision as far as possible reflect the basic values of the community being served.
Then in the 1960s re-emerged a new thinking in writing Golembiewski (in Keban, 1994) which adds a new element, namely ethical standards may be amended from time to time and therefore administrators should be able to understand the developments and act according to standards of behavior them.
Since the early 1970's there was some important figures that a very large influence on the conception of the ethics of public administrators, two of which as claimed by Keban (1994) is John Rohr and Terry L. Cooper. Rohr suggested that administrators can use the regime norms of values of justice, equality and freedom as the basis for decision making on various policy alternatives in the execution of his duties. In this way, public administrators can be more unethical (ethical being). Meanwhile, according to Cooper's very involving substantive ethical reasoning about obligations, consequences and the ultimate goal, and act ethically (doing ethics) is to involve the systematic thinking about the values inherent in the choices in decision making. Cooper thought that the ethical administrator is an administrator who is always tied to responsibility and the role of the organization, as well as willing to apply the proper standard of ethics in administrative decision-making.
Ethics In Islam's view
Islamic ethics has much anticipation ahead with two major cirri. First, the ethics of human nature are not opposed to Islam. Second, Islam is very rationalistic ethics. Just as a comparison would let me quote the opinion of Alex Inkeles of modern attitudes. After reviewing the various theories and definitions of modernization, Inkeles make a summary of modern attitudes sabagai following, namely: fondness accept new ideas and try new methods; willingness to make their opinions; sensitivity to time and more concerned with present time and the future rather than time in the distant past; taste better punctuality; greater concern for the plan of organization and efficiency; tendency to see the world as something that can be calculated; appreciate the power of science and technology, and confidence in the fairness of bias leveled. (Mudlor)
It was no longer need to be noted that what was raised Inkeles and claimed as a modern attitude was in line with the ethics of the Koran. In discussions about the relationship between ethics and morals, problems often arise is how to see the events that are of particular moral and ethical theory in the perspective of an individual who is rational and universal. Islam has a universal claim when internalized and realized tend to be particular and individual events. In short, moral action is a concrete action that is personal and subjective. Moral action is going to be complicated when the same subject time and conflict of values. For example, the value of solidarity sometimes clash with the values of justice and honesty. This is where lies the freedom, moral consciousness and rationality becomes very important. Namely, how to account for a subjective act within the framework of objective ethical values, ethical action within the framework of macro-micro, outward actions in reference to an inner attitude.
In the perspective of psychology, human beings consist of three essential elements namely, Id, Ego and Superego, whereas in the Islamic view of the three is often paired with anger nafs, nafs lawwamah, and nafs mutmaninah. All three are elements that exist in human life that akn grow along the journey and experiences of human life. So to keep all three runs fine, required education given to children of parents in the form of ethics charges that became the spearhead of the above three elements. Among pemberiaan ethics education to the child is directed to some of the things below:
1. Habituation to the good stuff with samples and parents' behavior and not much use in verbal language and look for the truth certainly depend on the historicity of a person in life and living.
2. When children are able to understand with a habit, it can be given further direction by explaining what and why and those relating to law of causality (causation) In adulthood, children are also removed begtu course, the role of parents as a reminder and a director should not break, without having any impression of an authoritarian, even taking him to a discussion of religious understanding.
3. In adulthood, children are also removed begtu course, the role of parents as a reminder and a director should not be broken, without any impression of an authoritarian, even taking him to a discussion about the understanding keberagamaan.Pembiasaan to things that are good with samples and parents' behavior and not much use of verbal language in delivering good and bad things, the benefits and mudharatnya, misguided and not. (Hidayat)
1.2 CONCEPT OF STATE ADMINISTRATION
In the Framework of Science Book Adminnistrasi, the administration is defined as the overall process of cooperation between two or more people based on a certain rationality pncapaian dlam order a pre-determined objectives by utilizing the facilities and infrastructure is efficient and effective manner. (Siagian)
Theory-explanative descriptions provide an explanation in the abstract reality of the state administration, either in the form of concepts, propositions, or the law. One example is the concept of formal organizational hierarchy. The concept was to explain common features of formal organizations, namely adalnya hierarchy in the organizational structure. The concept is as simple as this hierarchy can be developed into a hierarchy in the working mechanisms of public organizations, where a complete lack of public organization managers are described as people who beradda dipucuk hierarchy of an organization and work exclusively in the internal structure, as well as the organization he leads, he must also organizations or groups related to social / political others who also have their own hierarchy.
Normative theory aims to explain the situation to prospective future administration. Included in the normative theory is utopian, for example, just and prosperous society based on Pancasila, or small family a happy and prosperous. Normative theory can also be developed by formulating normative criteria more specific, such as efficiency, effectiveness, responsibility, accountability, economy, employee morale, decentralization, participation, innovation, democracy, and so on. Normative theory provides recommendations in which direction a reality needs to be developed or modified by offering certain normative criteria.
Location of issues in normative theory is that normative criteria are offered in the literature are not always mutually supportive, but in some ways contradictory. Too high an emphasis on efficiency can be sacrificed flattening. Too high an emphasis on efficiency can be sacrificed flattening. Similarly, centralization is necessary in order to maintain coordination, but the excessive centralization can sacrifice accountability and innovation.
Assuming the theory emphasizes the precondition or assumption of a social reality behind the theory or proposition which would be built.
The central question is answered in this type of theory is "how" and "when". Instrumental theory is a follow-up (then) of the proposition "if-due". For example if the system of administration takes place in so and so because of this and that, if decentralization can improve the effectiveness of the bureaucracy, if humans and their institutions are ready or be prepared to change the administrative system towards greater decentralization, the strategies, techniques, and what tools developed to support it?
1.3 CONCEPT OF ADMINISTRATIVE ETHICS
Nicholas Henry (1995) holds that there are three developments that are driving the development of the concept of ethics in science administration, namely (1) loss of political administration dichotomy, (2) appearance of theories of decision making in which issues of human behavior into a central theme in comparison with previous approaches such as rationality, efficiency, (3) development of pembaharuanm views, which he termed "Counterculture Critique", including a group called "New State Administration".
John A. Rohr showed clearly through the expression as follows: "Through administrative discretion, bureaucrats Participate in the governing process of our society; but to Govern in a democratic society without being Responsible to the electorates' Raises a serious ethical question for bureaucrats".
Hence also this discussion does not begin with the limits for a lot of literature dealing with ethics, morals, morality, so that knowledge of it here is considered "given". For the sake of discussion here followed trail Rohr, expert ethical issues in the bureaucracy, the use of ethics and morals in the sense that more or less the same, although for the sake of another discussion, for example, from the philosophical angle, there is a difference. Rohr stated: "For the most part, I shall use the words" ethics "and" Morals "interchangeably. Although there may be nuances and shades of meaning That differentiate these words, They are etymologically derived from Latin and Greek words with the same meaning. "We know from the literature that ethics comes from the Greek word ethos which means customs or character; and moral, of Latin word mos (or mores for the plural) which means also the habit or way of life. (Kartasasmita).
Ethics is his world philosophy, values, and morals. Administration is the world's decisions and actions. Are abstract and ethical issues relating to good and bad, while the administration is concrete and must realize what they want (get the job done). Discussion of ethics in the administration is how to link the two, how ideas such administrative order, efficiency, keman-faatan, productivity can explain ethics in practice, and how the basic ideas to realize that good ethics and avoid the bad that can explain the nature of administrative .
Especially since the decade of the 1970s, administrative ethics has become a rapidly growing field of study in science administration. This development is particularly encouraged, though not caused solely by the problems faced by the state administration in the United States because of scandals such as Watergate and Iran Contra.
Studies are still ongoing to this day, and still not crystallized. This reflects an attempt to establish the identity of administrative science, which as a discipline that is eclectic and closely related to the world of practice, can not help but continue to evolve with the times.
Based on this study ethics bureaucracy is defined as containing the system of moral principles or rules of conduct that control or influence the habits of civil servants in carrying out a hierarchical system of government and hierarchy. By adhering to the values (honesty, fairness, proper appointments, law-abiding, responsible, responsive, careful, and polite), then government officials can run the government and provide services to the community in line with expectations so that maintaining public confidence against them. (Kartasasmita).
Bibliography
Mudlor Ahmad, 2005, Ethics In Islam, Jakarta: Al-Ikhlas.
Abdullah Amin, 2002, normativity and the historicity of Religious Studies, Yogyakarta: Pustaka Student
Bertens, K. 2000. Ethics. Philosophy Series Atma Jaya, Jakarta: Penerbit PT Gramedia Pustaka.
Ginandjar Kartasasmita, dated 15 November 2007, Study Ethics In Government Bureaucracy, LHP-828/LB/2007.
Ginandjar Kartasasmita. (State Minister for National Development Planning / Chairman of Bappenas), 19 September 1996, Ethics Bureaucracy In Development Administration, Challenges Facing the Era of Globalization, Scientific Orations 41st Anniversary FISIPOL UGM Yogyakarta.
Qomarudin Hidayat. 10 January 2008, Ethics in the Bible and Its Relevance in Modern Life Case Study In Turkey, London: Paramadina.
P. Siagian Sondang, Administration Building, Jakarta PT. Toko Gunung Agung
Tidak ada komentar:
Posting Komentar